Introduction to Psychology
(Fall 2005)
SR Paper for September 29,
2005 (The Psychology of Learning)
By
Halford H. Fairchild
Pavlov,
Ivan P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes.
Stimulus: This article in Hock (2005) summarizes the
work of Ivan Pavlov which was published in his 1927 book. It describes the process of learning known as
classical conditioning, and the endurance of Pavlov’s work even into the
popular culture (the Rolling Stones had a song that included the phrase,
“Salivating like Pavlov’s dogs”).
Pavlov wrote about the dilemma of moving from
physiology to psychology: “…if we
attempt an approach from this science of psychology … we shall be building our
superstructure on a science that has no claim to exactness. … In fact, it is still open to discussion
whether psychology is a natural science, or whether it can be regarded as a
science at all” (p. 3).
Describes Pavlov’s s discovery and
terminologies. Visual stimuli were more
efficacious than odorous ones, in becoming conditioned stimuli.
Significance of the findings: phobias, advertising, source of emotions,
anxiety, sexual arousal.
Related research:
Watson’s Little Albert; ranchers and wolves; paired associations in
advertising; behavioral medicine
(activities of the immune system, which are reflexive)
Response(s): Psychology is the impossible science – due to
its inexactness. And, psychology is
regarded as a natural science, a social science, and/or an art. Perhaps, we can regard psychology as a “scientific
art” (Fairchild, 2005).
Watson,
J.B., & Rayner, R. (1920).
Conditioned emotional responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3,
1-14.
Stimulus: In counterpoint to Freudian notions on
emotions, Watson, a behaviorist, believed that behavior was the product of
learning. Here is one of his famous
quotes:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guaranteed to take any one at
random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggarman and thief (Watson, 1913).
Used Albert B., 9 months old. Describes the technique to condition fear to
white furry objects and stimulus generalization. No reconditioning ever took place. Much of Watson’s theoretical treatments were
in counterpoint to Freudian analysis.
Today, we regard the study as posing “serious
breaches of ethical conduct.”
Responses: What is ethical today may not be,
tomorrow. Is it good or bad that the
study was conducted?
The “recent applications” citation of Kendler, et al
(1999) – that phobias are due to inherited factors, is very dubious. Their study was one of twins. One would have to go and look at the actual
study.
Skinner,
B.F. (1948). Superstition in the
pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-72.
Stimulus: Notes why Skinner is regarded as a radical
behaviorist. (All behavior due to operant conditioning.)
Superstitious behavior conditioned in the pigeon by
giving it “noncontingent reinforcement every 15 seconds” (rewarded regardless
of what it was doing).
Superstitious:
the belief that certain behaviors produce a result, when no such
relation actually exists.
Critiqued by Carl Rogers, the humanistic
psychologist, who emphasized purposes, goals, values, choice, perceptions of
self and others, personal constructs, the phenomenal world that provides the
“connective tissue” of meaning.
Responses: Skinner’s teleology is reflected in his book,
Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he says that human beings have no free
will. Free will is an illusion. Everything we do has been shaped into our
behavior by rewards and punishments.
See his book, Walden II.
Teleology:
The study of final causes. The
belief that natural phenomena can be explained in terms of an overall design. The explanation of nature in terms of utility
or purpose. \
Superstitious behavior at the (basketball) free
throw line. Batters in the batting
box. Perhaps they become a
self-fulfilling prophecy: the golfer or
basketball player or batter who deviates from his/her routine may be
cognitively upset at the deviation, and perform more poorly.
What are our superstitions? (knock on wood; no 13th floor;
$2.00 bills). Especially in ‘dangerous
occupations.’
ADHD – a problematic diagnosis. In the study cited, were the ADHD boys on
medication?
Superstition to the number 13 is irrational. 13 ought to be a lucky number (number of full
moons in a year; menstrual cycles).
Superstitions can be beneficial.
Bandura,
A., Ross, D., &
Stimulus: Aggression as a current (and “greatest”)
social problem in the world today. Notes
theories of aggression (biogenetic, frustration, learning). Bandura and colleagues focused on social
learning theory.
Responses: Are not we, the
Direct and indirect aggression. Passive aggressive (where inactivity may be
interpreted as an act of aggression).
Authors do not note the race of the children; does
it matter?
Large sex differences: 38.2 instances of imitative physical
aggression for each of the male S’s and 12.7 for the female S’s. Verbal:
17 and 15.7 for boys and girls, respectively.
Aggressive imitation even in response to filmed and
cartoon portrayals.
What about the effects of real world vs.
fantasy? And violence in the news? (Copycat crimes).
Don’t current video games make real warfare seem
normal and OK?